User:SafariScribe/Nnamdi Azikiwe

Nnamdi Benjamin Azikiwe GCFR PC (16 November 1904 – 11 May 1996), usually referred to as Zik, was a Nigerian politician, author, and statesman who served as the 3rd and first black governor-general of Nigeria from 1960 to 1963 and the first president of Nigeria during the First Nigerian Republic (1963–1966). He was widely regarded as the father of Nigerian nationalism for driving force behind the nation's independence in 1960.

Born in Zungeru, Colonial Nigeria to Igbo parents from Onitsha, Anambra State, Azikiwe learnt Hausa, the indigenous language of the Northern Region, Nigeria. He was later sent to live with his aunt and grandmother in his hometown Onitsha, and he learnt Igbo language and culture. After he joined his father in Lagos, he became acquainted with Yoruba culture too, and by the time he was in college, he had incorporated the three major languages of Nigeria.

Azikiwe moved to the United States where he attended Storer College. After two years, he left for Howard University and later transferred to the University of Pennsylvania and Lincoln University, where he obtained his masters degree in philosophy and religion and in anthropology respectively. He had his doctorate degree at Columbia University. Azikiwe founded ZAC football team following the segregation of black athletes including his rejection by the colonial authorities to represent Nigeria in the 1932 Los Angeles Olympics. He returned to Africa in 1934, and worked as journalist in Gold Coast (present day Ghana).

Life

Family and background

Map of Nigeria: Azikiwe's birth land in the Northern region while his native town, Onitsha lies in the Southeastern part of the nation.

Azikiwe was born on 16 November 1904, in Zungeru, Northern Nigeria, as the first son of Rachel Chinwe (neé Aghadiuno) and Obededom Chukwuemeka Azikiwe. His father was born in November 1879, to Chukwude Azikiwe from the Onitsha family of Molokwu and Mbidokwu, both belonging to the Ogbeobu quarter. He went to school in Onitsha and Asaba on the Onitsha River, and in 1902, moved to the north as a civil servant, serving as a governmental clerk to the army in the Nigerian regiment during the British Administration. His mother was the third daughter of Aghadiuno, a cabinet member of Obi Okosi and the great-granddaughter of Ugogwu Anazenwu, a former Obi of Onitsha. Obededom married Rachel who bore three children but one of them, a boy died at infancy leaving Azikiwe and his sister Cecilia Arinze.

Azikiwe's father with the aid of a tutor, taught him simple basic arithmetics. He learnt Hausa but his father, concerned about his education, sent him to Onitsha to learn the Igbo language and culture as well as to attend a missionary school there. At Onitsha, Azikiwe lived with his grandmother and attended Holy Trinity School, a Roman Catholic Church missionary school for his primary education. His father, an Anglican insisted that he should be transferred to Christ Church School handled by the Church Missionary Society (CMS), and Azikiwe, after enrolling, attended regular and Sunday classes, and later became the student prefect. Azikiwe, bitten by a dog, joined his father who was transferred from Zungeru to Lagos and continued his education from 1915 to 1918. He also leant Yoruba language and culture. After his father was transferred again to Calabar in 1918, Azikiwe went back to Onitsha, continued and graduated from primary education. He served as the pupil-teacher until March 1920. Azikiwe joined his father in Calabar, and enrolled into Hope Waddell Training Institute from April to August 1920, for his secondary education. His father was sent back to Lagos again, Azikiwe followed him, and continued his education at Wesleyan Boys' High School (now called Methodist Boys' High School). Azikiwe became eager to study abroad after listening to the speech of James Aggrey from Gold Coast, which he delivered in 1920 at Lagos. He was also awarded a book, which helped him learn about American universities. During his secondary education period, Azikiwe excelled in academics and won prizes including one from Lord Lugard, the Governor General. By the time he was done with high school, he has learnt the three major languages of Nigeria. After graduation he worked in the colonial civil service as an employed clerk in the Nigerian Treasury, Lagos. According to him, it was there that he experienced the Nigerian government, and with frustration, resigned from the work with interest to study in U.S.

University education

Azikiwe in Storer College (1926)

Azikiwe applied for admission at Storer College, a black institution in Harper's Ferry in West Virginia. After revisiting those book given to him, Azikiwe selected Howard University in Washington D.C., whom he wrote to the President of the University (now called vice chancellor). In the letter he wrote, President J. Stanley Durkee replied to him and S. N Adibuah stating, " [sic] I have no available funds [at Howard] with which to help you. I can however put this up as a challenge." Azikiwe, with the response of Durkee to help with Storer college admission wrote to the president of Storer college Dr. Henry T. McDonald, who gave him good reply. Azikiwe, along Sidney Brown and John Anyaso, who desired to study in America met at Marina, Lagos in June 1924. They had small money as well as upkeep items with them, and boarded a canoe. They moved to Accra in Ghana, and then to Sekondi, where the three disembarked following Sidney's request. It was Azikiwe quitting going to America. After about three weeks, neither did he work or allowed to, since he was out of the three, the only one that went to junior secondary education. After Azikiwe's mother had found him, he returned home, and then, to Calabar to join his father. He persuaded his father of his intentions to study abroad citing his discussions with the presidents of the American colleges. Obededom, who wasn't conversant with oversees and lack of conviction, made effort to get Azikiwe work in the civil service under the Scottish legal professional Mr. G. Graham Paul in Calabar; those he had made up to study law in America.

In 1925, Azikiwe took some of his father's saved funds to travel to the United States to further his education. He didn't finish his college education in Nigeria. So, he enrolled into Storer College, a small schoolin Harpers Ferry, West Virginia for a two-year preparatory school. Azikiwe left Storer in the summer of 1927, and proceeded to the north city of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Following hunger and lack of funds, Azikiwe at a time wanted to commit suicide after being knocked out of a game, where he was a spare partnering to professional boxers. Azikiwe washed plates in restaurants, and for six weeks worked in a coal mine, where he mined anthracite coal which earns him twenty dollars.

Following the 1924 United States Immigration Act, a foreign student had either to be attending a full or regular course during the academic year inorder to avoid being deported in the next january. So Azikiwe started a car-washing course that he worked in garages. The work he did along his friend Bankole Wright from Africa too. They were expected to drive about, in and out of the garage; those they bribe their irish colleague to do when necessary. The Irish colleague got drunk one day that the boss of the garage noticed. However, he sacked Azikiwe and later Azikiwe's two alone proteges after knowing they never drive or knew what a gear was.

The economy kept diminishing that Azikiwe proceeded to Tuskegee Institute in Alabama to learn trade printing. He paused in Washington D.C., where he re-united with an old friend Cyril Olivierre. After Cyril had heard Azikiwe's condition, he helped him got employed as a part time private secretary of Professor and scholar Alain Locke. For the first time, under Locke, Azikiwe identified the issue staying in America.

Azikiwe started studying in Howard University from 1928 to 1929. He decided to transfer to a third institution Lincoln University in Chester County, Pennsylvania, into the junior this year class. He took the decision since he can't continue to afford the rate of Howard. Lincoln University was a small institution that took in African students from both the east and the west, offering scholarship, help, and opportunities when Africa is still emerging. Azikiwe was admitted during the 1929-30 academic year. He completed the first phase of his academic studies graduating with BA cum laude in June 1931. He further got his masters in anthropology from the University of Pennsylvania in 1933, and became a graduate-student instructor in the history and political science departments at Lincoln University. He also created courses in African history, and started his doctoral degree at Columbia University which focused on Liberia in world politics and was published by A. H. Stockwell in 1934 before he returned to Nigeria that same year.

Early career

Azikiwe on a local attire of American football at Storer College (1926)

Azikiwe returned to Nigeria in 1934. He was rejected by the colonial ministry of education to teach in King's College, Lagos. He was also denied an application to work in the diplomatic service of Liberia, since he wasn't a native. After his last denied application—a proposal to start a newspaper—in Nigeria, Azikiwe applied to Alfred Ocansey, a businessman who owns a newspaper in Gold Coast. Ocansey eventually accepted his application to establish and administer a daily newspaper, The African Morning Post. Azikiwe travelled to Accra on October 31, 1934, and after recruiting the administrative staff, he was appointed the editor in 1935.

Azikiwe used The Post to promote his African views and exchange of knowledge including giving the masses opportunities to write on witnessed colonial rules that has affected them. The newspaper's circulation grew from from 2000 in 1934 to 10000 in 1936. A parody on colonialism written by Theophilos Wallace-Johnson of Sierra Leone, which was published on May 15, 1936, entitled, "Does the African Have a God?" drew criticism on the British administration. Azikiwe and Wallace-Johnson were arrested with charges of sedition, which Azikiwe was guilty and was fined with £50. His lawyer, Francis Dove, appealed his case and the charges were quashed.

Azikiwe, following his knowledge of Gold Coast's politics and journalism returned to Nigeria in 1937, after collecting his noteworthy articles in The Post as well as other works, and published them as a monumental book entitled, Renascent Africa. He founded the West African Pilot in Lagos on November 22, 1937.

Controversy

Zikist movement

After supporting the general strike in June 1945, and opposition to the colonial government through his publication on West African Pilot, Azikiwe accused the colonial government of exploiting the working class Africans, and in August, resumed the newspaper publication. During the strike, Azikiwe raised the alarm about an assassination plot by unknown individuals working on behalf of the colonial government. His basis for the allegation was a wireless message intercepted by a Pilot reporter. After receiving the intercepted message, Azikiwe went into hiding in Onitsha. The Pilot published sympathetic editorials during his absence, and many Nigerians believed the assassination story. As Azikiwe's popularity, and his newspaper circulation, increased during the period, the allegations were doubted by some Nigerians who believed that he made them up to raise his profile. Zikists, a non violent youth movement led by Kolawole Balogun, Raji Abdallah, Osita Agwuna, M. C. K. Ajuluchukwu and Abiodun Aloba, was established in 1946 to defend Azikiwe and his ideals of self-government. Colonial officers considered the Zikist movement an unlawful society and promulgated an Order-in-Council, outrightly banning it successfully on April 12, 1950.

Opposition to Richards constitution

In 1945, British governor Arthur Richards presented proposals for a revision of the Clifford constitution of 1922. Included in the proposal was an increase in the number of nominated African members to the Legislative Council. However, the changes were opposed by nationalists such as Azikiwe. NCNC politicians opposed unilateral decisions made by Arthur Richards and a constitutional provision allowing only four elected African members; the rest would be nominated candidates. The nominated African candidates were loyal to the colonial government, and would not aggressively seek self-government. Another basis of opposition was little input for the advancement of Africans to senior civil-service positions. The NCNC prepared to argue its case to the new Labour government of Clement Attlee in Britain. A tour of the country was begun to raise awareness of the party's concerns and to raise money for the UK protest. NCNC president Herbert Macaulay died during the tour, and Azikiwe assumed leadership of the party. He led the delegation to London and, in preparation for the trip, traveled to the US to seek sympathy for the party's case. Azikiwe met Eleanor Roosevelt at Hyde Park, and spoke about the "emancipation of Nigeria from political thralldom, economic insecurity and social disabilities". The UK delegation included Azikiwe, Funmilayo Ransome-Kuti, Zanna Dipcharima, Abubakar Olorunimbe, P. M. Kale, Adeleke Adedoyin and Nyong Essien. They visited the Fabian Society's Colonial Bureau, the Labor Imperial Committee and the West African Students' Union to raise awareness of its proposals for amendments to the 1922 constitution. Included in the NCNC proposals was consultation with Africans about changes to the Nigerian constitution, more power to the regional House of Assemblies and limiting the powers of the central Legislative Council to defense, currency and foreign affairs. The delegation submitted its proposals to the colonial secretary, but little was done to change to Richards' proposals. The Richards constitution took effect in 1947, and Azikiwe contested one of the Lagos seats to delay its implementation.

1950–1953

Nigeria Stamp of 1953

Under the Richards constitution, Azikiwe was elected to the Legislative Council in a Lagos municipal election from the National Democratic Party (an NCNC subsidiary). He and the party representative did not attend the first session of the council, and agitation for changes to the Richards constitution led to the Macpherson constitution. The Macpherson constitution took effect in 1951 and, like the Richards constitution, called for elections to the regional House of Assembly. Azikiwe opposed the changes, and contested for the chance to change the new constitution. Staggered elections were held from August to December 1951. In the Western Region (where Azikiwe stood), two parties were dominant: Azikiwe's NCNC and the Action Group. Elections for the Western Regional Assembly were held in September and December 1951 because the constitution allowed an electoral college to choose members of the national legislature; an Action Group majority in the house might prevent Azikiwe from going to the House of Representatives. He won a regional assembly seat from Lagos, but the opposition party claimed a majority in the House of Assembly and Azikiwe did not represent Lagos in the federal House of Representatives. In 1951, he became leader of the Opposition to the government of Obafemi Awolowo in the Western Region's House of Assembly. Azikiwe's non-selection to the national assembly caused chaos in the west. An agreement by elected NCNC members from Lagos to step down for Azikiwe if he was not nominated broke down. Azikiwe blamed the constitution, and wanted changes made. The NCNC (which dominated the Eastern Region) agreed, and committed to amending the constitution.

Azikiwe moved to the Eastern Region in 1952, and the NCNC-dominated regional assembly made proposals to accommodate him. Although the party's regional and central ministers were asked to resign in a cabinet reshuffle, most ignored the request. The regional assembly then passed a vote of no confidence on the ministers, and appropriation bills sent to the ministry were rejected. This created an impasse in the region, and the lieutenant governor dissolved the regional house. A new election returned Azikiwe as a member of the Eastern Assembly. He was selected as Chief Minister, and became premier of Nigeria's Eastern Region in 1954 when it became a federating unit.

Later life and death

When the opposition leader, Obafemi Awolowo was charged with treason by Balewa’s government, it led to a lot of criticism by Balewa’s supporters. Violence broke out in the region after elections took place in 1965; as many were not pleased with the outcome. The tension and violence in the area eventually led to the coup in 1966. Balewa was assassinated on January 15, 1966 in a military coup led by rebellion junior soldiers in Lagos. Premier Samuel Akintola of the Western Region, Finance Minister, Festus Okotie-Eboh, Premier Ahmadu Bello of the Northern Region were also deposed and killed too. According to Max Silloun, he stated “In the aftermath of the coup, Nzeogwu rattled off a list of names that were on the Majors hit list. He mentioned the usual unsurprising suspects such as Bello, Azikiwe, and Akintola. Balewa's name was conspicuously absent. Balewa was not killed until it was clear that the coup was doomed to fail. It was clear that not all arrested persons were to be killed. Some politicians such as Sir Kashim Ibrahim and Michael Okpara were arrested but released unharmed.” The Supreme Military Council (SMC) headed by General Johnson Aguyi-Ironsi, as the most senior officer, took control of the government and suspended the constitution on January 16, 1966. Some 3,000 Nigerians fled as refugees to Dahomey.

Ironsi, as the most senior officer, succeeded Azikiwe as first military head of state

Yakubu Gowon was chosen to succeed Ironsi after the military counter coup.

The Nigerian government abolished the four federal regions on May 24, 1966. Some eastern ethnic groups about 115 individuals were killed in political violence on May 28-June 2, 1966. Major General Aguyi-Ironsi was deposed and killed in a military coup led by Lt. Colonel Murtala Muhammed on July 29, 1966. Some 30 individuals were killed in political violence in Lagos on July 29-August 1, 1966, and some 250,000 eastern ethnic groups fled from the Northern Region to the Eastern Region following the military coup. Lt. Colonel Yakubu Gowon was sworn in as the head of the federal military government following the military coup, and he restored the four federal regions on August 31, 1966. Some 2,000 ethnic Igbos were killed in political violence in the Northern Region from September 29 to October 4, 1966. Lt. Colonel Odumegwu Ojukwu, military governor of the Eastern Region of Nigeria, declared that the region would no longer recognize Lt. Colonel Yakubu Gowon as head of the federal military government on March 2, 1967. Lt. Colonel Gowon assumed full powers as commander-in-chief of the armed forces and head of the military government on May 27, 1967. Lt. Colonel Gowon proclaimed a state-of-emergency on May 28, 1967. Lt. Colonel Odumegwu Ojukwu, military governor of the Eastern Region, declared the independence of the Republic of Biafra in southern Nigeria on May 30, 1967 after the federal government did not honor the Aburi Accord.

Independent State of Biafra, 1967

Azikiwe initially supported Biafra and its international recognition. He used his political influence to lead Biafra delegation abroad for recognition of the independent state. By 1968, having seen the consequences the war will have, he appealed unsuccessfully to Biafra’s leader, Emeka Ojukwu, to finally negotiate with Nigerian leader, Yakubu Gowon. Azikiwe stayed away from politics after the war. He was chancellor of the University of Lagos from 1972 to 1976. Cessation of the military rule and ceding of power to democratic rule in 1979 gave Azikiwe a chance for a political comeback. He joined the Nigerian People's Party in 1978, making unsuccessful bids for the presidency in 1979 and 1983. He left politics permanently after the 31 December 1983 military coup led by Muhammadu Buhari.

Final years

On November 8, 1989, news media falsely announced Azikiwe’s death as a result of enquiries from a BBC correspondent about his condition. He eventually resurfaced saying “I am not in a hurry to leave this world, because it is the only planet I know." In 1991, Azikiwe went to the launching of Nnamdi Azikiwe Centre in Zungeru, his place of birth, by President Ibrahim Babangida. In the summer of 1995, he granted an interview at Lincoln university, Pennsylvania with the Director of Public Relations of the University.

Azikiwe eventually died on 11 May 1996, at the University of Nigeria Teaching Hospital in Enugu after a prolonged illness. He was 91. Azikiwe was given a state funeral by the government of Sani Abacha, following nearly two weeks of national ceremonies. His body taken to various important cities in the country for mourning and tributes. He was finally buried in his native Onitsha on November 16, 1996, on what would have become his 92nd birthday.

Legacy

During the 19th century, the scramble for Africa witnessed European powers having Africa divided, human and natural resources exploited. The development of African political ideology emerged with the intent to search for an ideological project of self- affirmation and assertive cultural nationalism. Among the proponents of Pan Africanism were Nnamdi Azikiwe, the Pilot of Nigerian Independence. Azikiwe's place in Nigeria's cosmology goes far beyond the positions he held. He gave nationalism and the independence struggle a new meaning. Zik, then in Hope Waddel Institute, was conversant with the ideas of Marcus Garvey on Pan Africanism, emphasizing the empowerment of Africans, and the redemption of Africa by Africans. This made Zik question the legitimacy of Colonialism in Africa, and was inspired by Garvey's call for the liberation of Africa from the colonial governments. At a time when Nigeria was still a collection of disparate regions, identities and local units, Zik started canvassing for Nigerian independence and for the creation of a de-ethnicised, de-tribalised sense of Nigerian nationalism and patriotism.

Azikiwe went to the USA where he studied and taught at various segregated universities in the South, experiencing the atmosphere of discrimination and the upsurge of radical `Negro' resistance. He was also inspired by the 19th century USA president, James A Garfield on grass to grace political ascendancy. On returning to West Africa, his primary concern was, therefore, not a territorial, nationalist struggle, but a universal, world-wide struggle for the black race. As editor of the African Morning Post in Accra, from 1935 to 1937, Azikiwe immediately established a reputation because of his direct `American style' journalism and bold criticism of the colonial system, of colonial officials as well as of local African leaders. His influence extended throughout British colonial territories and he was the motivating force of some African leaders like Kwame Nkrumah, Julius Nyerere, Dauda Jawara, Kenneth Kaunda and Milton Obote among others. Azikiwe's combative and provocative journalism was the principal source of his fame and power, and the most crucial single precipitant of Nigerian awakening. Azikiwe founded a media outfit called Zik Group, under which he established and edited West African Pilot, which was referred to as "a fire-eating and aggressive nationalist paper of the highest order." Under Zik Group he revolutionised the West African newspaper industry, demonstrating that English-language journalism could be successful, and expanded his controlling interest to over 12 daily, African-run newspapers. West African Pilot grew exponentially from an initial run of 6 000 copies daily, to printing over 20,000 copies at its peak in 1950s.

Awards and honours

Azikiwe was a member of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom on 16 November 1960 as well as the Grand Commander of the Federal Republic (GCFR).

He was awarded fourteen honourary degrees from Universities in Nigeria, United States and Liberia such as Doctor of Law from Lincoln University (1946), Doctor of Letters by Storer College (1947), Doctor of Law from Howard University (1959), Michigan State University (1959), University of Nigeria (1961), University of Liberia (1969), University of Pennsylvania (1980), University of Ibadan, University of Lagos, Ahmadu Bello University, Nnamdi Azikiwe University in Awka, and Federal University of Technology Owerri.

Currency and Postage Stamps

Azikiwe's portrait appears on Nigeria's ₦500 banknote since 2001. Azikiwe was included in the postage stamps unveiled during the first anniversary of Federal Republic of Nigeria in 1964 and has since appeared in other stamps.

Azikiwe issue of 1964

Azikiwe on 500 naira note.

In popular Culture

The first biography of Azikiwe was authored by himself, published in 1970 titled "My Odyssey: An Autobiography.

Ziks Prize Logo

The Federal Government of Nigeria established Zik Prize - annual leadership award, in 1995 in honor of Azikiwe.

In 2006, Ben Obi initiated Zik Annual Lecture Series to immortalize the good works and legacies of Dr Nnamdi azikiwe.

Azikiwe's educational philosophy was portrayed in the University of Nigeria Documentary Film. In 2023, Duke of Shomolu Foundation produced a play based on the life and times of Dr Nnamdi Azikiwe.

Michigan State University created 'Nnamdi Azikiwe International African Student Fellowship' in 2023, to support MSU international African students to Africa for research. The award was in honor of Azikiwe who partnered with MSU faculty to build a land-grant model university (University of Nigeria) in Eastern Nigeria.

Traditional honor

Azikiwe was inducted into the Agbalanze society of Onitsha as Nnanyelugo in 1946, a recognition for Onitsha men with significant accomplishments. In 1962, he became a second-rank red cap chieftain (Ndichie Okwa) as the Oziziani Obi." Chief Azikiwe was installed as the Owelle-Osowa-Anya of Onitsha in 1972, making him a first-rank hereditary red cap nobleman (Ndichie Ume) in the Igbo branch of the Nigerian chieftaincy system.

Critical reception

Yuri Smertin described his writing as, "passionately denunciatory articles and public statements which censured the existing colonial order: the restrictions on the African's right to express their opinions, and racial discrimination". Yuri also criticized those Africans who belonged to the 'elite' of colonial society and favoured retaining the existing order, as they regarded it as the "basis of their well-being.

Selected works

• Azikiwe, Nnamdi (1970). My Odyssey: An Autobiography. Books that matter. C. Hurst. ISBN 978-0-900966-26-2.
• Azikiwe, Nnamdi (1968). Renascent Africa. Africana modern library (in Latvian). Cass. ISBN 978-0-7146-1744-2.
• Azikiwe, Nnamdi (1934). Liberia in World Politics. A. H. Stockwell.
• Azikiwe, Nnamdi; Anikwe, F. I.; Eze, Dons; Ozoalor, Tony (1966). One hundred quotable quotes and poems of the Rt. Hon. Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe. Enugu, Enugu State, Nigeria: Institute of Management and Technology. ISBN 978-978-2736-09-3. OCLC 38430555.
• Azikiwe, N. (1943). Economic Reconstruction of Nigeria. African Book Company Limited.
• Azikiwe, N. (1961). Zik: A Selection from the Speeches of Nnamdi Azikiwe, Governor General of the Federation of Nigeria, Formerly President of the Nigerian State, Formerly Premier of the Eastern Region of Nigeria. Cambridge University Press.
• Azikiwe, N.; Committee of African Organisations (1961). The Future of Pan-Africanism. Nigeria High Commission.
• Azikiwe, N. (1969). Peace Proposals for Ending the Nigerian Civil War. Colusco.
• Azikiwe, N. (1974). Dialogue on a New Capital for Nigeria: A Political Analysis. Ahmadu Bello University Press.
• Azikiwe, Nnamdi (1974). Democracy with military vigilance. Nsukka, Nigeria: African Book Co. OCLC 3303344.
• Azikiwe, N. (1976). Let Us Forgive Our Children: An Appeal to the Leaders and People of Onitsha to Forgive and Forget the Wrongs Committed During the Market Crisis. Zik Enterprises.
• Azikiwe, Nnamdi (1977). Civil war soliloquies : more collection of poems. Nsukka, Nigeria: African Book Co. OCLC 3692644.
• Otite, Onigu (1978). Themes in African social and political thought. Enugu, Nigeria: Fourth Dimension Publishers. OCLC 8363104.
• Azikiwe, N. (1978). Restoration of Nigerian Democracy: Blueprint for Post-military Rule. African Book Company.
• Azikiwe, Nnamdi (1979). Matchless past performance : my reply to Chief Awolowo's challenge. Nsukka, Nigeria: African Book Co. OCLC 6633707.
• Azikiwe, N. (1979). A Matter of Conscience. African Book Company.
• ——— (1980). Ideology for Nigeria: Capitalism, Socialism or Welfarism?. Macmillan Nigeria. p. 196. ISBN 9789781325212.

References

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• Olusanya, Gabriel (1964). The impact of the Second World War on Nigeria's political evolution (PhD Thesis). University of Toronto.
• Reeves, Mark (2021). "A Gilded Cage? Nnamdi Azikiwes Pan-Africanism as Governor-General of Nigeria, 1960–63". Journal of West African History. 7: 1–26. doi:10.14321/jwestafrihist.7.1.0001. S2CID 242294844.
• Geerlings, Lonneke (2018). "Performances in the theatre of the Cold War: The American Society of African Culture and the 1961 Lagos Festival". Journal of Transatlantic Studies. 16. doi:10.1080/14794012.2018.1423601.

Further reading

• Igwe, Agbafor (1992). Nnamdi Azikiwe: The Philosopher of Our Time. Enugu, Nigeria: Fourth Dimension Publisher. ISBN 978-978-156-030-9.
• Ikeotuonye, Vincent (1961). Zik of New Africa. P.R. Macmillan.
• Olisa, Michael S. O.; M., Ikejiani-Clark, eds. (1989). Azikiwe and the African Revolution. Onitsha, Nigeria: Africana-FEP. ISBN 978-978-175-223-0.
• Ugowe, C. O. O. (2000). Eminent Nigerians of the Twentieth Century. Lagos: Hugo Books.